The cultural heritage of a people is its most important asset, its identity and a sense of continuation through time. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean and standing as it does at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa it has had a tumultuous history. The Mycenaeans Achaeans brought their civilisation here, establishing the first Greek roots 3,000 years ago. Many others passed through, including Phoenicians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Romans, Crusaders, Venetians, Ottomans and the British. The apostles of Christ walked this land. The splendour of Byzantium, founded by Constantine the Great at Constantinople, encompassed the island of Cyprus. Here are prehistoric settlements, ancient Greek temples, Roman theatres and villas, Early Christian basilicas, Byzantine churches and monasteries, Crusader castles, Gothic churches and Venetian fortifications. In the villages, old customs and traditions are still kept alive. Young girls still engage in lace-making in the beautiful village of Lefkara just as their grandmothers did before them. Potters still create wondrous anthropomorphic shapes to decorate their earthenware vessels at picturesque Foini and the sound of hand looms can still be heard in Fyti, home of attractive hand-woven materials, whilst, men in traditional baggy trousers, "vraka", still congregate at the coffee shop for a game of backgammon.

In Cyprus the 21st century rubs shoulders with a civilisation 10000 years old. There are festivals whose origins stretch back into antiquity; like Carnival and Anthestiria organised in honour of God Dionysos; at Kouklia, where the Temple of Aphrodite once stood, a church was known until a few years ago as The Church of the Virgin Mary Aphroditissa'. The aura of the Great Goddess of Cyprus is still present in Pafos, and all over "the Sweet Land of Cyprus" in the beauty of the landscape, the mildness of the climate and the charm of the people. The immortal words of Euripides and Sophocles ring out on warm summer evenings at the Ancient Kourion Theatre and the Pafos Odeon during performances of ancient Greek drama.

And in September wine flows free and the spirit of Dionysos, god of wine and merriment, is present throughout the Wine Festival. The Mediaeval folk songs are still sung in Cyprus keeping alive the legends of Digenis, the unconquerable border guard of Byzantium, and of his beautiful Queen, Rigaina. In the narrow streets of the walled city of Lefkosia the coppersmith works with the metal as did his ancestors 5,000 years ago. In the shade of old houses with their overlooking balconies, the flavour of the past lingers among the old typical stone houses. In Cyprus the past lives side by side with the present in a unique tapestry of living history.

Remains of the oldest known settlements in Cyprus date from this period. This civilisation developed along the North and South coast appeared on a second phase after 5000 BC. Archaeological remains testify that Cyprus was first inhabited during the Neolithic age, which lasted for about 3000 years. The Eteocyprians, who most probably came from the shores of Asia Minor, were the first known inhabitants to establish themselves in Cyprus at the beginning of the 6th millennium B.C., and bring with them their customs and traditions. They used stone for weapons, tools and household utensils, and cultivated the land, keeping domestic animals such as sheep, goats and pigs. They lived in thatch roofed circular huts usually situated near the coast or, on hillsides, with access to the rivers. The most important settlements of these early inhabitants are found in Khirokitia, Petra tou Limniti, Kalavassos and Sotira near Episkopi in Limassol. From archaeological finds it is apparent that their lifestyle was highly developed. They were acquainted with such forms of social development as burial rites, religious thinking and family networks and were a highly artistic people, as can be seen from their decoration on stone and clay pots.

Transitional period between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. Most Chalcolithic settlements are found in Western Cyprus, where a fertility cult developed. Copper is being discovered and exploited on a small scale.

The discovery of copper at the beginning of the 3rd millennium, and the extensive forests of Cyprus, renowned for their wood, attracted the attention of neighbouring peoples. Asia Minor and Syria were the starting point of the gradual influx of new settlers, whose living conditions improved considerably with the use of copper for the making of tools, weapons and utensils. The privileged position of Cyprus favoured the expansion of trade with Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Assyria, Crete, and the Aegean Islands. The main export goods were copper and wood used for shipbuilding, and this contributed tremendously to the island's wealth and prosperity. The copper period in Cyprus, which was then known as Alasia, lasted until the end of the 2nd millennium B.C. About the middle of this millennium, Cypriot kings paid tribute in copper. Letters written in cuneiform script reveal that the Egyptian occupation was not oppressive. but rather conducive to the island's progress and prosperity. The king of Alasia addresses Pharaoh as his brother in a letter written for him, and in another letter, the Alasian king speaks of sending copper to Pharaoh while requesting oil and silver from him.

Around 1400 B.C. we have the arrival of the first Mycenaeans on the island, originally as merchants and later as settlers. The Mycenaeans were of Greek origin and known for their development of shipping and trade, mainly with the people of the Eastern Mediterranean. They used Cyprus as an intermediary station for their goods destined for the East. Then they settled in the Syrian town of Ras al Shamra, near Latakia, from which their civilisation spread to the coastal areas of Syria and Palestine.

In a relatively short period of time, the Mycenaeans were able to impose their civilisation on the inhabitants of Cyprus. Their language was very quickly adopted throughout the whole island whose ethnological composition changed in favour of the new settlers. Their art made such an impact that the Cypriot art itself lost its original character, and their religion and customs were soon adopted by the Cypriots and thus links with Greece became very close. Towards the end of the 13th century, after the end of the Trojan war, the colonisation of Cyprus by the Greek element was further strengthened by the settlement of the Achaeans. Teucer, brother of Ajax, came to Cyprus and founded Salamis, giving it the name of his native island. At about the same time, many other Greeks came to Cyprus and founded cities such as Lapethos, founded by Praxandros of Sparta, and Paphos, founded by Agapenor of Arcadia.

The Phoenicians, one of the most important naval and commercial peoples of antiquity, lived in Phoenicia, today known as Lebanon. Their naval and commercial activities extended from the Mediterranean to England and the African shores of the Mediterranean. They set up commercial stations connecting this vast area at various points. According to archaeological finds, though their contacts with Cyprus commenced during the 10th century B.C. their settlement did not actually take place until the 8th century B.C.; the most important Phoenician settlements in Cyprus being those at Kition and Lapethos. Of lesser importance were the settlements at Idalion, Tamassos, Marion and Amathus. Despite the fact that the Phoenician settlers obtained commercial bases on the island, in order to increase the firm establishment of their own position and to penetrate the interior of the island, they aided and abetted other settlers, such as the Assyrians, Egyptians, and especially the Persians, in their added colonisation and settlement in the island.

The Phoenician civilisation, which was a mixture of influences from neighbouring people, had in itself a very limited impact on Cyprus. Nevertheless, a most outstanding contribution of the Phoenicians to world civilisation was their invention of the alphabet. This alphabet was adopted by the Greeks in the 10th century and then spread to other European peoples.

Between the 10th and 8th century B.C. Cyprus was independent, enjoying great wealth and a fast rate of economic development. The ensuing prosperity and power were mainly due to the development of shipbuilding, as well as to the expansion of trade with other Mediterranean countries. This was the period of the naval supremacy of Cyprus.

The Assyrians conquered Cyprus in 707 B.C. They were a North Mesopotamian people with Nineveh as their capital. Their empire, stretching to all Eastern countries, was firmly established with the victories of their King Sargon II. The conquest of Cyprus aimed mainly at safeguarding the western section of the Assyrian border along the Syrian coast, and not at the political subjugation of the island. Their occupation was not oppressive and the Cypriot kings were autonomous, at least as far as internal affairs were concerned. Their only obligation was the annual payment of tax to the Assyrian King. This was verified in 1844 when an inscription found at Kitium referred to a visit to Babylon by seven Cypriot Kings bearing precious gifts for the Assyrian King, and indicating thereby their loyalty to his rule.

Cyprus was freed from the Assyrian rule in 650 B.C. In no way did the subjection to the Assyrians hinder the cultural development of the island. On the contrary, various statues of the period show that Cypriot art was influenced by eastern cultural styles. When Pharaoh Amasis of Egypt conquered Cyprus, the period 650-570 B.C. was one of great advancement, as regards the arts and literature. Poetry in particular, flourished, a notable example being the "Cyprian Epic" - probably written by Stasinos and connected with Homer's "Iliad".

The Persians are of Indo-European origins and inhabited the Iranian plateau as their homeland. Persia's power and influence, however, extended to the shores of the Mediterranean, and forced the Cypriots to participate in the rivalry existing between the Persian and Egyptian empires. With foresight, the Cypriots sided with Persia. In an effort to avoid the inevitable armed occupation of Cyprus by Persia, the Cypriots offered their assistance to Cyprus, king and founder of Persia. In return for this, Cyprus conceded autonomy to the Cypriot kings with the right of minting their own coins. The Ionian revolt against Persia in 499 B.C. brought a sudden end to the hitherto friendly relations between Cyprus and Persia. Herodotus says that when the Ionian revolt broke out, the Cypriots, apart from the Amathusians, voluntarily sided with the lonians. Onesilus played an important role in the struggle against the Persians. He succeeded in uniting all the Greeks of Cyprus, (except the Amathusians), in a national uprising with the lonians and directed them against the Persians. The uprising, however, failed when the latter, having landed at Salamis, defeated the Cypriots and killed Onesilus, who had greatly distinguished himself by his bravery. Onesilus is justly regarded as the hero 'par excellence' of Cyprus and is perpetuated as a symbol of all the Cypriot national struggles.

After the battle at Salamis, the lonians, who had fought alongside the Cypriots, left the island. The Persians besieged and finally conquered all the other towns of Cyprus. In order to establish their absolute control, they appointed their own trusted kings who were Persophiles, allowing them a considerable degree of autonomy. After the Persians' defeat in Greece, various attempts ensued to gain the liberation of Cyprus. An Athenian campaign, headed by Aristides and Pausanias, met with failure. A more successful attempt was made in 499 B.C. when Kimon, the Athenian general, liberated many towns, with a fleet of 200 warships. Marion, for example, was freed from Persophile rule and came under Greek control. After the liberation of Marion. Kimon besieged Kitium and Salamis, both of which had a powerful Persian guard. During the siege, Kimon was wounded and eventually died. His death, however, was kept a secret from the troops who were finally victorious, liberating Kition as well. In spite of this. the benefit of Cyprus was small since in 448 B.C., after Kimon's death, the Athenians concluded a treaty with the Persians. The latter withdrew their armies from the Greek cities of Asia Minor and in turn the Greeks promised to withdraw their armies from the countries under Persian rule and undertook to refrain from interfering with them in the future. To facilitate this agreement, Cyprus was abandoned to the mercy of the Persians who imposed a very oppressive regime. Together with the Phoenician assistance, the Persians tried to uproot the Greek element from Cypriot soil, something that they did not achieve despite their harsh oppression and the persecution of the population.

During this period Kitium was the most important town in Cyprus as regards trade and commerce. This was partly because of the predominance of the Phoenician element and partly because of the Persians favourable attitude towards the town. Being loyal to the task assigned to them by the Persians, the Phoenicians exploited the island clearly for their own benefit, thus causing poverty and misery throughout the indigenous population of the island. This was the situation until the end of the 5th century B.C.

In 411 B.C., Evagoras, a young descendant of the family of Teucer, the founder of Salamis, dethroned Avdimon who was a Phoenician and declared himself the King of Salamis. The Persian King did not react to this change because Evagoras continued to pay the required tax and was loyal to Persian rule. Thus, Evagoras was enabled to fortify Salamis and build his navy, developing the city into an important centre and helping in the overall development of Cyprus. His ultimate ambition was to subjugate the whole island, oust the Phoenicians, and restore the Greek element in Cyprus. As a result of the close relationship he developed with the Athenians, many Athenian artists, intellectuals and others began to travel to Cyprus. He aided the Athenians in their rivalry with the Spartans, an act that gave him high status in Athens and a title as an honorary Athenian citizen. Evagoras thus contributed significantly to the Greek civilisation in Cyprus and its expansion to the neighbouring countries.

His attempts to unite all the city-states of Cyprus under his rule were strongly resisted by the kings of Kitium, Amathus and Soloi, who requested the Persians to prevent Evagoras from realising his plans. Despite this, however, he conquered Amathus, imprinting the coinage with his name as an expression of supremacy. In addition, he conquered Kition, and in 388 B.C. he appointed Demonicos of Athens as the new king of the city. When the King's Peace was concluded in 386 B.C. between the Spartans and the Persians, the latter's rule in Cyprus was once again undisputedly legitimate. Thus, Evagoras was left to carryon single-handed the struggle against the Persians. He was soon defeated at a battle near Kition and, after seeking refuge in Salamis, he was forced to relinquish his conquests and to recognise Artaxerxes as the supreme ruler of the island. He nevertheless secured his own right to rule Salamis. From then on until his death, Evagoras ruled peacefully. During this period, his attention was totally absorbed in the spreading and the general development of the Greek civilisation, the development of his city and the expansion of trade and commerce. He also became a fervent patron of literature and the arts in general.

Evagoras was succeeded by his son Nicocles. Despite the fact that the period of his reign was characterised by his wisdom and justice, he was finally murdered by Persophile elements. With the excuse that public opinion demanded a war against the Persians, his successor and younger brother, Evagoras II, defected to the Persians. This signalled the beginning of yet another disastrous war between the Cypriot kings, led by Pnytagoras, and the Persians. Cyprus came once again under a more oppressive Persian rule. Nicocreon, Pnytagoras' successor, adopted a philhellenic policy and co-operated with Alexander the Great.

With the beginning of Alexander the Great's, expedition into Asia, the Cypriot kings expressed their desire to be freed from Persian rule to which they had been subjected since 545 B.C. In their attempts to achieve their freedom, they assisted Alexander in the siege of Tyre, sending 120 warships and remaining his loyal allies until the end of the expedition. As a reward, Alexander granted them autonomy along with many other gifts. In addition, Pnytagoras was allowed to rule Tamassos, a city under the Phoenician influence. Various other Cypriot kings were rewarded with important positions in the army.

After Alexander's death, Cyprus was subjected to the rule of Ptolemy who, having firmly established his reign in Egypt, sought to establish friendly relations with some of the most important Cypriot kings, such as those of Salamis and Paphos, who later became Ptolemy's allies. Meanwhile, Antigonus who wanted Cyprus because of its strategic position, signed treaties with other Cypriot kings, such as those of Kitium, Amathus, Marion and Lapethos. Thus, Cyprus became the battlefield between Ptolemy and Antigonus, two opposite camps.

The armed conflict between the two camps continued for a long time, with very unpleasant consequences for Cyprus. Despite the victory achieved by Antigonus's son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, in 306 B.C., Cyprus was incorporated into the realm of Ptolemy I in 249 B.C., and so it remained until 58 B.C., when Cyprus was conquered by the Romans.

After their victory over the Carthaginians, the subjections of Greece, and their annexation of Cilicia and Syria, the Romans became the most influential people in the Mediterranean.

The Hellenistic Kingdoms in the East were unable to halt Rome's expansionist policy. Interference in the affairs of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, together with the presence of pirates near the coasts of Cyprus, combined to give the Romans an opportunity to conquer Cyprus. Indeed, with the excuse that the Cypriot King Ptolemy refused to pay the ransom demanded by pirates for his release, P. Claudius Pulcher, a mayor, confiscated the treasures of Ptolemy and enacted a law, which turned Cyprus into a Roman region. Marcus Cato, who led the mission to Cyprus, proposed that Ptolemy abdicate from the throne and instead become a priest at Aphrodite's temple in Paphos. In response to this suggestion, Ptolemy committed suicide, leaving his treasure to Cato. Thus it was that Cyprus came under Roman rule, to be a part of the Cilician region, with Cato as the first governor. He was succeeded by Appius Claudius Pulcher who was solely interested in the increase of his personal wealth through the confiscation of large properties, both private and public. Cicero, on the other hand who was his successor tried to rule Cyprus fairly and justly.

Bewitched by her beauty, Julius Caesar ceded Cyprus to Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in 37 B.C. After Cleopatra's death in 31 B.C., Cyprus once again reverted to Roman rule.

The Romans showed special interest in Cyprus and contributed to its development. They built roads, meeting incidentally their own military needs, aqueducts, markets, gymnasia, libraries, theatres and public baths. Augustus himself paid for the reconstruction of the temple of Aphrodite, which had been destroyed by an earthquake. Thus Paphos attained its pre-eminence re-establishing itself as the centre of worship of the Goddess of Love, where thousands of people from Cyprus and elsewhere gathered every year to pay tribute to Aphrodite.

After the death of Theodosius Magnus in 395 A.D., the Roman Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Cyprus was annexed to the Eastern part, whose capital was Constantinople. An army garrison was established to secure the island's safety. Thus, the first centuries of the Byzantine period were a period of peace for Cyprus. In the 7th century, however, this peace was disturbed by the Arab invasions. The first one occurred in 647 when Muawiya occupied and destroyed Constantia, killed many of the inhabitants, confiscated a great deal of its treasures, and imposed taxes. Later on, in 654, he sent a new force under Abdul Akbar who plundered the rest of the island. Despite the assistance sent to Cyprus from Constantinople, the Islamic hordes destroyed churches and enslaved those who had not managed to escape to the mountains. Peace came again to Cyprus in 678, when a pact between Byzantium and the Arabs was signed. According to this, and in order to avoid being used as a base, Cyprus was to pay taxes both to Byzantium and to the Arabs.

Unfortunately, peace was not to last. In 692 A.D., the Arabs in a new conflict defeated Justinian II. It was then that the Archbishop of Cyprus and other Cypriots left the island for their safety, and went to settle at Kysikos, a town at the Hellespont. This town was renamed New Justinian. Since then, apart from their main title pertaining to Cyprus, the Cypriot Archbishops are also Archbishops of New Justinian.

On their return to Cyprus in 700 A.D., they found the island in a lamentable state. The Arab invasions continued. In 743, during the reign of Khalifa Walid II, many Cypriots were transported to Syria. The last invasion led by Caliph Harun-al-Rashid in 806 A.D., was the most destructive one. It is estimated that there were a total of 37 Arab invasions. During the two and a half centuries when these took place, Byzantium supported Cyprus and temporarily succeeded in freeing it from Arab domination. The island was relieved in 965 by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas whose victory signalled the beginning of the decline of Arab power in the Eastern Mediterranean. Soon after, the Cypriot people started reconstructing their ruined cities. Famagusta was built next to Constantia, Larnaca replaced Kitium, and Limassol replaced Amathus. A new era began for Cyprus. The taxes previously paid to the Arabs and to Byzantium and its trade and weaving, now resulted in a period of peace.

The Arab invasions had brought an abrupt end to all-artistic, creation, but the deep religious sentiment inherent in the people of Cyprus led to the revival of Christian religious art once the Arab threat was removed. They built monasteries and churches, decorated with outstanding murals, and frescoes and enriched them with Byzantine icons and a wealth of gold and silver items.

Some of the most significant murals of the 11th century and subsequent years are those of Mary of Assinou, St Nicholas tis Stegis at Kakopetria, Mary of Araca, St Neophytos in Paphos and others.

Parallel to the arts, though perhaps to a somewhat lesser degree, there was a significant intellectual development. St Neophytos, the recluse of the Paphos district, was amongst the most noted of Byzantine writers.

In his short but significant work "Concerning the misfortunes of Cyprus", he refers to the maladministration, and consequent suffering of Cyprus under Isaac Commenus who, in 1184, had unilaterally declared Cyprus "independent" and under his own personal rule.

In 1191, England's King Richard the Lionheart, faced with a dangerous storm at sea, found refuge in Cyprus while travelling the Holy Land. Isaac Commenus imprisoned those on board. Richard's sister and fiancée were amongst them. Isaac responded with utter contempt, to Richard's demand for the release of the hostages. An armed clash followed and Richard, having defeated Isaac, became the new ruler of Cyprus, thus bringing to an end the island's control by Byzantium. Because of his commitment to go to the Holy Land, Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar for 100.000 ducats. As soon as they took over, the Knights Templar set up a very oppressive regime and imposed heavy taxes in order to regain the money they had been obliged to pay to Richard. They were soon forced to leave the island because of uprisings amongst the population. In 1192, Cyprus was once again under Richard's rule, and in effect a British possession.

In the same year, i.e. 1192, Richard the Lionheart sold Cyprus to Guy de Lusignan, the titular king of Jerusalem. In his attempt to provide a firm basis for his regime, Guy decided to settle down in Nicosia with his family and some Knights from the Holy Land, though they were strangers among people of different origins who spoke a different language. He then gave large areas of land to the Barons and the Knights from the Holy Land to enable them to settle down in Cyprus. By this means he established a feudalist system. Peasants worked in the fields of the Barons and Knights, who tended to live a luxurious and corrupted life. Feudalism humiliated the Cypriot people and exhausted the island's economy.

Guy's successor was his brother Almaric (1194-1205), who treated the Cypriots very harshly and was responsible for the persecution of the Orthodox Church. In 1196 he confiscated the property of the Church and gave it to the Latin Church, installing a Latin Archbishop and Latin Bishops in Cyprus. This Latin Church included the archbishopric in Nicosia, and three bishoprics in Famagusta, Limassol and Paphos, were all endowed with land seized from the Greek Orthodox Church. Catholic Orders accompanied these clerics and they in turn seized various privileges as well as land. The number of the Greek Orthodox bishops was confined to four, and they were obliged to move their sees to villages to facilitate the Latin bishops. The Latin Church sought to place the Orthodox Church under its control; this was more vigorously pursued during the reign of Henry I (1218-1253). In spite of all pressures, the Cypriots preserved their language and religion, and the Orthodox Church, having retained its dynamic element, became the protector of the people.

The Latin bishops and other clerics built magnificent churches and monasteries with the co-operation and assistance of the French Kings and powerful monastic Orders, such as those of the Augustine Monks, the Dominicans and the Premontre who had settled in Cyprus. Some of these outstanding buildings are St Sophia in Nicosia. St Nicholas in Famagusta, and the Abbey at Bellapaise, all of which are considered to be excellent examples of French Gothic architecture.

The settlement of Western traders and craftsmen in Cyprus had a beneficial influence on its economic development. Both industry and agriculture were greatly developed. Sugar and wines were soon exported abroad. Commandaria, a special kind of dessert wine, silk from Paphos and embroidery from Lefkara gained wide reputation in Western countries. Famagusta was soon the richest city in the Near East and its luxury and wealth impressed many visitors. Despite this superficial prosperity, however, the common people were oppressed and lived in great misery.

After the death of Almaric in 1205, Hugh I came to the throne. During his reign and due to the activity of his wife Alicia especially, the Greek Orthodox Church was subjected to the Latin Church. Only four Greek sees remained intact, and the Greek Orthodox bishops had to bow to the orders of the French Archbishop, who had removed his see from Famagusta to Nicosia.

Hugh, who died in 1218 A.D., was succeeded by his son Henry I. During his reign, St Louis, the French King and leader of the Sixth Crusade, visited Cyprus. Henry accompanied Louis to Egypt. During his reign, the subjugation of the Greek Orthodox Church was complete and the Orthodox bishops were removed from their sees. The Nicosia bishop moved to Solea, the Famagusta bishop to Rizokarpasso, the Limassol bishop to Lefkara, and that of Paphos to Arsinoe (Poli tis Chrysochous). These bishops were therefore known as bishops of Solea, Karpassia, Limassol and Paphos respectively. They were forced to pay tribute in kind. All the land and property of the Orthodox Church was taken over by the Latin bishops, leaving the local priests to support their churches as well as they could.

Henry I was succeeded by his son, Henry II, who died very young in 1267. He was in turn succeeded by Henry III, who came into conflict with Charles of Sicily and died in a battle at Tyre in 1284. His son, John, succeeded him to the throne, but he only reigned for a year, and died in 1285. John was succeeded by his brother Henry II whose reign (1285-1324) was only typical as his two brothers, Guy and Amarlic, usurped his throne. He was a prisoner in Armenia from 1306-1310, and he returned to Cyprus only when his brother Amarlic was murdered. Henry lived peacefully until his death in 1324. His cousin Hugh IV then succeeded him. During his reign, (1324-1359), Hugh IV helped to the development of agriculture and industry as well as of the arts, showing great honour to the educated Cypriots and especially to the well-known intellectual George Lapithios. Trade was expanded considerably, and Famagusta became the most important trade centre of the East. His reign can be considered as the most glorious and prosperous period of the Lusignan dynasty.

Hugh IV was succeeded by his son, Peter I (1359-1369), whose main preoccupation was the organisation of a crusade against the Muslims in the East. Despite his personal contacts in Europe and his hope of securing assistance from the Pope and Western leaders, he failed to do so. On his return to Cyprus, in 1365, he coerced the Muslim leaders of Asia Minor to pay taxes and join him in an alliance. He then attempted to annex Alexandria, but his allies and his own army refused to co-operate, forcing him to return to Cyprus, where Knights who had declared his son, Peter II, the new king, murdered him in 1369. During the coronation ceremony, there was a clash between the Venetians and the Genoese at the Cathedral of Famagusta. The Genoese had desired to conquer Cyprus because of its commercial and geographical position and, grasping the altercation as an excuse, they sailed to Cyprus demanding compensation. In the ensuing war between the Genoese and Peter II, the latter was inveigled into paying compensation and accepting humiliating terms of peace. The Genoese seized Famagusta and, having imposed a Genoese garrison commander, left for the Republic of Genoa bearing considerable treasure.

Peter II died in 1382 A.D., and was succeeded by his uncle Jacob I who ruled until 1398. As soon as he took over, his son Janus tried unsuccessfully to oust the Genoese from Famagusta. He was also involved in a war with the Sultan of Egypt. The latter's armies came to Cyprus, plundered Limassol and marched into the interior of the island. Janus was defeated and was taken as a prisoner in a battle at Khirokitia. After his death, his son John II took over. He married Helen, the daughter of Theodorus Paleologos, the last King of Constantinople. Her reign was marked by the freedom of the Orthodox Church from the Latin Church. Helen supported and protected the Greek intellectuals and clerics who fled to Cyprus after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks.

John's daughter Charlotte (1458-1485) succeeded John II and adopted a philhellenic policy, which was acceptable by the Franks. Charlotte married the Duke of Savoy and became consort to the throne. During her reign, her illegitimate brother Jacob, assisted by the Sultan of Egypt/seized the throne, thus Charlotte fled for her safety.

Jacob II succeeded in driving out the Genoese that had, for a hundred years, preserved a state within a state. In the meantime, with the Venetians' assistance, he married Catherine Cornaro of Venice. After the deaths of her husband and son, Catherine continued to rule, though her reign was marked by the Venetian influence. Sometime before her death (1489), she was forced to transfer her sovereign rights to the Republic of Venice and to leave Cyprus.

Thus, the story of the Frankish sovereigns in Cyprus ended ingloriously, and the 300 years of their reign was a period of misery and oppression for the island and its people.

Since 1489 the Venetian flag with the emblem of the Lion of St Mark had been raised over Cyprus. The occupation of Cyprus by the Venetians was clearly of a military nature, as it aimed at the defence of the island against the Egyptians and the Turks. In order to secure their occupation of Cyprus the Venetians maintained an army of a significant and deterrent strength, with 12 battalions and a large cavalry, which also secured it against pirate raids. They constructed large military works in Famagusta, Nicosia and Kyrenia and they also built the walls of Nicosia.

The Venetians did little for the trade, agriculture or the arts, and they cared little for the well-being and health of the population whose honour and dignity was violated and whose personal freedom was restricted. These attitudes were ultimately responsible for the unsuccessful rebellion of the Greek inhabitants of the island against the Venetians in 1546.

The Turkish Sultan, Selim II, wished to occupy Cyprus because of its geographical proximity to Turkey. He repeatedly proposed to the Venetians that the island should be sold to him, but Venice had rejected his proposals. In 1570, he sent a large fleet led by Admiral Piali Pasha and a large army under Mustafa Pasha to conquer Cyprus. The Turkish forces landed at Limassol, which they looted, and then preceded by sea to Larnaca, where they landed without meeting any resistance.

With a 100,000 - strong army, Lala Pasha besieged Nicosia, which was being defended by 10,000 fighters under the leadership of Dandalo. The city eventually fell to the Turks after a siege, which lasted seven weeks. Pasha then proceeded to besiege Famagusta, which he attempted both by sea and land. Strong double walls and a garrison comprising Greeks and Latin's, which was under the command of Marcus Anthony Bragadino, protected Famagusta. The attempts of the Turks to take the city failed repeatedly, due mainly to the bravery of the defenders and to the impenetrable construction of its walls. Eventually, however, food and war supplies ran out and the garrison officer, raising a white flag, asked for negotiations leading to the surrender of the city under decent terms. Mustafa, initially, accepted these terms but did not keep his promise. When the city came under his control, he tortured Bragadino to death, plundered the churches, and converted them into mosques.

After the capture of Famagusta, the Turks occupied the whole of Cyprus, and Venice concluded a peace treaty with the Sultan accepting all his claims for the island. This occupation of the island by the Turks signalled the end of the Latin rule, and brought about dramatic changes in the social, ecclesiastical and religious structures of Cyprus. The administration of the island was quickly settled. A general governor was to be appointed directly by the Sultan and Nicosia was pronounced the centre of government. Feudalism as well as all forms of social discrimination were abolished thanks to the removal of the aristocratic and generally privileged classes.

The legal code, applicable during Frankish times, was replaced by the Ottoman code, which was based on the Koran. Cyprus was divided into 17 court districts, with a Court of Appeal in Nicosia presided over by the "Mullah". The Ottoman tax system was based on what the Cypriots paid for their agricultural production, customs duties, water tax, as well as tithes for the privilege of free exercise of their religious rights. Private collectors who had the right to collect taxes at auction undertook the collection of these taxes. Thus the people paid additional sums to cover the collectors' expenses.

When the Turks had set up their administrative authority, the Greeks requested that the Sultan should restore the Greek Orthodox Church. This demand was granted to the Greeks who could now freely exercise their religion, and the Orthodox Church was no longer under the control of the Pope in Rome. The Ecumenical Patriarch ordained new church officials, the Archbishop being installed in Nicosia and the bishops in Kyrenia, Larnaca and Paphos. The Latins were no longer allowed to maintain their churches or to hold land. In 1754 under decree of the Sultan, the Archbishop and the three Bishops were officially recognised as the representatives of the people with the right of direct access to the Porte, circumventing the authority of the general Turkish governor of Cyprus. As for their relations with the political authorities, the Bishops applied to the Dragoman, appointed by the Archbishop. As the representative of the Greeks of Cyprus, the Archbishop was considered by the Turks from 1660 onwards, the Ethnarch of the Cypriot people. This mainly aimed to an easier administrative system and tended to make it easier for the Turks to collect the taxes, known as "haratzi". The Archbishops of Cyprus have retained the title of the Ethnarch to this day and this privilege of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus contributed to the general improvement of the living conditions of the people, even though on occasions, church officials oppressed the people and abused their rights.

Certain Ottoman maladministration practices and the economic exploitation of the Cypriot people led to riots both by the Greek and the Turkish Cypriots. Aga Ahmet Oglu led the first riot in 1680. It was followed by another one led by Halil Aga (1765-1766), governor of Kyrenia. Both Greeks and Turks again supported the second riot. The central government found it difficult to suppress these riots.

During the three centuries of the Turkish occupation of Cyprus, there was no progress in the economic, literary or cultural field. Heavy taxation, the decline in trade and industry and generally the poor administration were all responsible for a dramatic decline of the birth rate. It was estimated that the population of Cyprus was almost a million in 1480, and only 150.000 in 1780.

After the defeat of Turkey by the Russian Czar Alexander in the war of 1877-78, the Treaty of St Stephen was concluded, and Russia was considered to be one of the biggest powers in Europe. It was as a consequence of this shift of power that Britain, whose interests in the Middle East and Asia were significantly threatened by the situation, concluded an agreement with Turkey by which Britain promised to offer help to Turkey in case of new hostilities with Russia. In return, Turkey exchanged Cyprus for the annual rent of £92.000, paid by the British.

In July 1878. Vice-Admiral Lord John Hay arrived in Cyprus and the British flag was hoisted over Nicosia. This signalled the transferring of the administration of the island from Bessim Pasha, the last Turkish governor of Cyprus, to Britain. Some days later, Sir Garnet Wolseley, the first High Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief, arrived in Larnaca.

In his first speech to the Cypriot people, Sir Garnet promised freedom, justice, security and respect for the Cypriot customs and traditions. The Cypriots received the English as their liberators, hoping that Britain would assist in the union or enosis of Cyprus with the mainland Greece, as had happened in the case of the Ionian islands at an earlier time. The Cypriots expressed this aspiration from the very first day of Sir Garnet Wolseley's arrival through their spokesman Bishop. Kyprianosof Kitium, and this desire was motivated by a lack of any enmity towards the English. Their demand for enosis, however, was fraught with difficulty since the island, according to the Convention ratified between England and Turkey in 1878, was nominally under the rule of the Sultan.

When Turkey sided with Germany against the Allies of the First World War in 1914, an Imperial Order-in-Council annexed Cyprus to Britain. In 1923, Turkey abrogated all the rights on Cyprus with the treaty of Lausanne. Two years later, Britain designated Cyprus as Crown Colony. Although the British policy of Cyprus was much better than that of the foreign rulers that preceded them, yet the heavy taxation, the Cypriots', desire for enosis with Greece and the problems of constitutional rights led to the first uprising of the Cypriot people against the British in October 1931.

The uprising was suppressed within ten days by troops brought over especially by the British from Egypt. The rebels were imprisoned and exiled. Human rights were violated and Cyprus was subjected to a non-liberal and dictatorial regime. The Cypriot uprising led to many anti-British demonstrations in Greece itself. Atthough the Greek Prime Minister, Eleftherios Venizelos stated that Greece was in Sympathy with the struggle of the Cypriots, he declared that he was unable to help achieve the realisation of their national aspirations.

Under the provision of the declaration of the Atlantic Charter and the promises for political emancipation of peoples by the colonial rule after the end of the World War II, the Cypriots sent representatives to London to submit their demand for enosis with Greece. The answer was, as had been expected, a negative one. The British, however, did yield to some of the demands, such as the return of the 1931 exiles, a relatively greater freedom in educational issues, the re-establishment of the Synod of the Church, and certain constitutional concessions although the right of veto of the Governor limited them. The people's representatives did not accept the proposed constitutional concessions, and demonstrations broke out demanding self-rule and union with Greece.

Encouraged by the unanimous proposal of the Greek Parliament in 1947 which supported the national claims of Cyprus, the Greek Cypriots held a referendum, where 96% of the Greek Cypriots voted for enosis, a fact of great political importance. When the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden, stated that Cyprus would never become independent or be in a position to decide upon its own future, Greece unsuccessfully appealed to the United Nations, in 1954 and 1955. The cause of failure was attributed to the fact that the appeal to the United Nations aimed at changing the status quo. Since then, the Cyprus problem has been publicized throughout the world.

When the Cypriots realised that the Organisation of the United Nations would not be able to bring about any change in the colonial regime in Cyprus, it was decided that the British should be fought by means of an armed struggle. The Archbishop of Cyprus, Makarios III, and Major Georgios Grivas Dhigenis organised a secret organisation. EOKA, which undertook the struggle against the English from 1st April 1955. The British Government resorted to arrests, and imprisonments, to death convictions and curfews and finally exiled Archbishop Makarios to the Seychelles, in its attempt to restore peace by the suppression of the Cypriot armed movement.

Their supporters considered EOKA's action noble, and the fighting spirit of the Cypriot people in pursuing their aims was received with unstained administration. In 1950 negotiations between Greece and Turkey began in Zurich, aiming at a, solution of the Cyprus problem acceptable by Britain. Indeed, it was agreed in Zurich that Cyprus should be granted independence. Thus, a conference was held in London on 19th February 1959, among Greek, Turkish and English representatives as well as representatives of the Greek and Turkish Cypriots who had been signatories to the Zurich Agreement. Cyprus was to become an independent state, with its independence guaranteed by Britain, Greece and Turkey. The Turkish Cypriots also provided that sovereign British bases should be maintained at Episkopi, Dhekelia and Akrotiri, but it eliminated the possibility of enosis with Greece as well as the division of Cyprus as had proposed the Agreement. The Greek Cypriots received these arrangements with disappointment, since their aspirations had not been fulfilled.

The declaration of Cyprus as an Independent Republic was formally announced on 16th August 1960 with Archbishop Makarios III as the first President. Immediately after the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus, the island became a member of the United Nations Organisation and a member of the Commonwealth, the Council of Europe and of other international organisations and bodies.

The Constitution, adopted by the Zurich-London Agreements, had several disadvantages. Three years after independence, violent clashes broke out between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots. After the request of President Makarios, British troops were brought to Cyprus as part of a «peace-keeping» mission. In 1964, the United Nations was also sent to Cyprus to support the British troops.

The peacekeeping force has been in Cyprus ever since and, despite the prolonged mediation efforts, no solution has been reached concerning the Cyprus problem.

During the period 1964-1974, Cyprus witnessed a great economic development and prosperity, thanks to tourism. During the same period, the threats from Turkey that it would invade and occupy Cyprus continued. The justification of this threat was provided by the coup d',etat of 15th July 1974, organised by the Greek dictatorial government, supported by EOKA B'. The coup aimed at the overthrow of President Makarios. The Greek Colonels knew that there was a strong possibility that Turkey would invade Cyprus, though they did not expect the occupatiQn of 40% of the island. The aim of the Colonels was to achieve the annexation of a part of Cyprus to Greece. On 20th July 1974 the Turkish army landed in Cyprus, with the declared object of protecting the Turkish Cypriots. By the 17th August, the invasion and the clear division of the island had been completed. The consequences are still horrifying: 200,000 Greek Cypriots have abandoned their homes in the north; more than 4,000 people died and 2,000 are still missing. The Greek and Turkish Cypriots, who had lived together in comparative peace and friendship for centuries, are now living in two completely separated regions. For a considerable period of time, the Greek and Turkish Cypriots were engaged with the idea of a federation, an idea to which the Greek Cypriots were originally opposed. The Turkish Cypriot negotiators, obedient to Ankara's commands, still aim at a Federation that would only contribute to the partition of the island.

There would undoubtedly be enough places for all Greek and Turkish Cypriots, in Cyprus. Peace and friendship between them is a dream that is still feasible, if only the indigenous people could get together and settle their differences.